3 Climate change, energy and air quality

3.1 Policy context

International

The UK is party to key international climate agreements, including the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992), the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the Paris Agreement (2015).  These treaties establish obligations for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and promoting adaptation.

National

The Climate Change Act 2008 sets a requirement for the UK Government to ensure that greenhouse gasses are reduced to net zero by 2050.  This target was introduced through an amendment to the act in 2019.

The Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act (2004) requires development plan documents to include policies designed to secure that development contributes to climate change and adaptation. 

The National Design Guide (2021) sets a requirement for well-designed places and buildings to follow the energy hierarchy of:

• reducing the need for energy through passive measures including form, orientation and fabric;
• using energy efficient mechanical and electrical systems, including heat pumps, heat recovery and LED lights; and
• maximising renewable energy especially through decentralised sources, including on-site generation and community-led initiatives.

Paragraph 15 of the NPPF identifies that the purpose of the planning system is to contribute to the achievement of sustainable development. In paragraph 17 it identifies that achieving sustainable development means that the planning system has three overarching objectives – an economic objective, a social objective and an environmental objective.

Policy CC1: Planning for climate change (1) of the NPPF identifies that “Development plans should take a proactive approach to mitigating climate change and supporting the transition to net zero, in accordance with the objectives and provisions of the Climate Change Act 2008.  They should also take a proactive approach to adapting to climate change, taking into account the implications of extreme weather and long-term climate trends including overheating, wildfires, drought, flood risk, coastal change, water supply, biodiversity and landscapes”.  It also states in CC1(1)(a) that plans should propose development patterns through their spatial strategy and allocations which can help to contribute to radical reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and avoid increased vulnerability and improve resilience to the effects of climate change. CC1 (1) also identifies that development plans should address any specific risks from climate change, set local water efficiency standards where these are justified and identify opportunities for green infrastructure provision and nature-based solutions which can safeguard and improve carbon storage.

NPPF Policy PM13(1)(b)(iii) relates to setting standards for energy efficiency.  This identifies that any standards that go beyond the current or proposed Building Regulations should have a clear and robustly costed rationale which shows that there will not be an adverse impact on the viability and deliverability of development.

In terms of the use and supply of renewable and low carbon energy and heat, NPPF Policy W1 identifies that plans should make provision for development which is required for new or enhanced renewable and low carbon energy development.  Policy W2 identifies that the development plan should support the transition to clean power by planning positively for the increased supply and use of renewable and low carbon energy and electricity network infrastructure.

There is a specific section of the PPG which relates to climate change.  This advises how to identify suitable mitigation and adaptation measures to address the impacts of climate change.

Regional

There are no specific plans or policies at a regional level that would have a significant impact on climate change, energy or air quality.

Local

CW&C unanimously declared, on 21 May 2019, that the borough is in a climate emergency.  The Council agreed that:

• climate change presents a threat to our way of life;
• the Council recognises the need to act in-line with worldwide agreements on climate change and the best available evidence, which states that, to limit emissions to 1.5oC, there is a requirement to reach net zero by 2045; and
• the Council must play its part by evidencing leadership on this issue.

In order to respond to the identified climate emergency, the Tyndall Centre report (2019) recommends that CW&C should aim to reach zero or near zero carbon no later than 2040.  Most of the drivers for reductions in carbon emissions are outside the control of the local authority, for example the pace at which electricity is decarbonised and vehicle taxation policies.  However, local authorities can influence carbon emissions through the ways in which they provide their services and how they plan and develop housing and infrastructure.

Within the Borough Plan 2024-2028, one of the six missions is that “individuals, public services and businesses take action to move to tackle the climate emergency, achieve net zero, protect the natural environment and adapt to the impact of climate change”.

3.2 Baseline information

The Met Office have identified that the UK has already warmed by 1oC since around the 1950’s.  There have been: increased temperatures in coastal seas around the UK; less frost and snow; longer and more frequent warm and hot spells; shorter and less frequent cold spells; and many high temperature records have been broken. 

The Office for National Statistics have identified that since the 1980’s, the UK climate has been warming at a rate of approximately 0.25 degrees Celsius per decade, and 2022, 2023 and 2024 have all been in the UK’s top five warmest on record.  The Climate Change Committee progress in adapting to climate change 2025 report to Parliament identified that the period between October 2022 and March 2024 was the wettest 18 months on record for England.

The Department for Energy Security and Net Zero have published greenhouse gas emissions figures for 2024.  This identifies that for per capita emissions of CO2 CW&C has the 50th highest figure our of all local authorities.  The figure for CW&C is 8.2 tonnes, compared to the figure for England as a whole of 4.7 tonnes.

71.6% of domestic properties in CW&C had an Energy Performance Certificate (EPC) band C or above in 2025 compared to 63.7% for England.  This is an increase of 10.5 percentage points since 2024 for CW&C, compared to 3 percentage points for England over the same period.  Since 2012, the percentage of domestic properties with this energy performance standard has increased by 35.6 percentages points in CW&C, compared to a 24.8 percentage point increase over the same period for England as a whole (Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government – Live tables on Energy Performance of Buildings Certificates).

The CW&C Landscape Sensitivity Study (2016) identifies areas where the sensitivity of the landscape to wind development and solar development is likely to be greatest and areas where impacts may be more moderate.

The Cheshire West and Chester Low Carbon and Renewable Energy Study (2012) provides a technical assessment of the baseline energy demand and potential renewable energy resources for the borough.

The Department for Energy Security and Net Zero has published data relating to renewable energy by local authority for 2024. 

The authority is required to assess and where necessary monitor the concentrations of key atmospheric pollutants, primarily those that represent a threat to human health, but also those through to adversely affect vegetation.  Where objectives are unlikely to be met, an Air Quality Management Area (AQMA) must be declared, and an Air Quality Action Plan implemented to improve air quality.

There are currently two AQMAs within CW&C, covering a relatively small proportion of the borough.  They are located in Chester city centre and Thornton le Moors.  In Chester, the source of the problem is nitrogen dioxide (NO2) from road traffic.  In Thornton le Moors it is sulphur dioxide (SO2) from industrial sources.  AQMAs in Ellesmere Port and Frodsham were revoked in 2024.

The CW&C ‘State of the Borough Dashboard’ identifies that in 2024, 691 vehicle miles were travelled on average per 100,000 members of the population, compared to a figure of 490 vehicle miles for England. The percentage of adults that walk for travel in CW&C is below the percentage for England, as 35.2% versus 37.5% for England (Department for Transport - road traffic estimates). There is relatively high private car use due to the rural nature of parts of the borough and the distances travelled to work, both within and outside the borough (for example to Liverpool and Manchester).

3.3 Recent changes and anticipated trends

The CW&C ‘State of the Borough Dashboard’ identifies that there has been nearly a 49% reduction in CO2 emissions per capita from 2013 to 2023 in CW&C.  This is compared to a 43% reduction in England.  The key driver for this is a reduction in industrial CO2 emissions (Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy UK local authority and regional greenhouse gas emission statistics).

The Climate Change Committee report ‘Progress in adapting to climate change: 2025 report to Parliament’ (2025) identifies that:

• The UK’s preparations for climate change are inadequate.  Adaptation progress is either too slow, has stalled, or is heading in the wrong direction.
• The Government has yet to change the UK’s inadequate approach to tackling climate risks
• The Government must act without further delay to improve the national approach to climate resilience

In future, energy requirements will change in terms of type as well as amount, for example increased numbers of electric vehicles will increase requirements for electricity. The UK has committed to preparing for 100 percent electric vehicle sales by 2030. The sale of new cars powered solely by internal combustion engines will be phased out in the UK from 2030 and from 2035 all new cars and vans will be zero emission.

The peaks and troughs in energy demand are also likely to change and energy storage will be increasingly important as more renewable energy capacity is developed.

Provision of solar farms is becoming increasingly popular within CW&C.  The Council has added solar panels to many of the buildings within its ownership, including schools and leisure facilities.  The uptake of domestic scale solar is also increasing.

The carbon dioxide and hydrogen pipelines forming part of the HyNet project pass through the borough. HyNet will capture carbon dioxide emitted by heavy industry and will provide locally-produced low carbon hydrogen to provide power for industry, transport and to heat homes and businesses. Parts of the HyNet project are now underway.  Once finalised, this could significantly increase the use of hydrogen and reduce carbon dioxide emissions in CW&C.

3.4 Evidence gaps and proposed work

There are no significant evidence gaps relating to climate change, energy or air quality. 

There is no proposed work relating to climate change at the current time.

3.5 Local Plan scope and influence

The main ways in which the Local Plan could influence climate change, energy and air quality are:

• Controlling the location of future development. Depending on the locations chosen, this could maximise opportunities for sustainable transport, walking and cycling and minimise dependence on cars and reduce congestion, which would result in lower levels of air pollution than alternative options.  However, development of new homes and businesses is likely to result in additional air pollution.
• Influencing levels of sustainable transport and reducing reliance on private vehicles through location of development and provision of safe and attractive walking and cycling routes that are well connected to services and facilities.
• Supporting compact, mixed-use development patterns that encourage walking and cycling would reduce potential air pollution.
• Facilitating more renewable and low carbon energy development.
• Requiring green infrastructure, tree planting and sustainable drainage systems (SuDS) which can help manage flooding and reduce urban heat island effects.  Supporting green infrastructure and tree planting can also help filter pollutants.
• Identifying areas at risk from flooding and steering development away from more vulnerable locations.
• Encouraging low-carbon construction and energy-efficient building design.
• Encouraging resource efficiency.

3.6 Key sustainability issues and opportunities

The key sustainability issues relating to climate change, energy and air quality at a strategic planning level are:

• High levels of carbon emissions per capita in the borough due predominantly to industry.
• High levels of nitrogen dioxide in one AQMA and high levels of sulphur dioxide in one AQMA.  New development could contribute to or be affected by poor air quality.  Poor air quality can have a significant impact on people’s health, such as increasing incidences of respiratory illness.
• Difficulties improving accessibility to services and facilities and reducing car use in the rural area.
• Additional renewable energy developments could impact negatively on the landscape, particularly if undertaken in greater numbers and at a larger scale.
• Energy performance of buildings and difficulties with retrofitting.

The key sustainability opportunities relating to climate change, energy and air quality are:

• Due to the scale of the borough and the relatively compact nature of the main centres, there are opportunities for developments to be built in accessible locations that help to reduce the need for car travel.
• Potential to make significant reductions in carbon emissions by decarbonising industry in Ellesmere Port and making the most of opportunities resulting from the HyNet project.  The businesses in the Ellesmere Port are already have expertise in the energy sector and have been working on ways to decarbonise these energy-intensive industries.
• Potential opportunities for additional capacity from future renewable energy schemes in the borough.
• The Planning and Energy Act 2008 identifies that Local Planning Authorities may include policies in their Local Plans that impose reasonable requirements for: a proportion of the energy used in development in their area to be from renewable sources or to be low carbon.  It also enables the setting of efficiency standards that exceed the energy requirements of building regulations.  This could potentially be included in a future plan, but the consultation version of the NPPF proposes limiting local authorities’ ability to set local quantitative standards beyond national requirements, including energy efficiency standards.
• There are opportunities to reduce the carbon impact of new buildings, both in terms of embodied carbon (the carbon emitted during the production of the materials that are used to construct the building) and carbon emitted from the operation of the building (heating, cooling, lighting, technology and appliances).
• The Local Plan and / or design code could require design of new buildings to maximise solar gain and prevent overheating.
• There are opportunities for urban greening and tree planting as carbon sinks and to increase shading and reduce heat island issues. This links to the work of the Mersey Forest and Local Nature Recovery Strategy. Green roofs and walls could also be supported and can help to reduce air temperatures, improve air quality and to slow and contain run-off from heavy rainfall.

3.7 SA framework